Overview

How can we compare the energy that releases from one reaction to that of another reaction? We use a measurement of free energy to quantitate these energy transfers. Scientists call this free energy Gibbs free energy (abbreviated with the letter G) after Josiah Willard Gibbs, the scientist who developed the measurement. According to the second law of thermodynamics, all energy transfers involve losing some energy in an unusable form such as heat, resulting in entropy. Gibbs free energy specifically refers to the energy of a chemical reaction that is available after we account for entropy. In other words, Gibbs free energy is usable energy, or energy that is available to do work.

Every chemical reaction involves a change in free energy, called delta G (∆G). We can calculate the change in free energy for any system that undergoes such a change, such as a chemical reaction. To calculate ∆G, subtract the amount of energy lost to entropy (denoted as ∆S) from the system's total energy change. The total energy in the system is enthalpy and we denote it as ∆H. The formula for calculating ∆G is as follows, where the symbol T refers to the absolute temperature in Kelvin (degrees Celsius + 273):

ΔG = ΔH − TΔS

We express a chemical reaction's standard free energy change as an amount of energy per mole of the reaction product (either in kilojoules or kilocalories, kJ/mol or kcal/mol; 1 kJ = 0.239 kcal) under standard pH, temperature, and pressure conditions. We generally calculate standard pH, temperature, and pressure conditions at pH 7.0 in biological systems, 25 degrees Celsius, and 100 kilopascals (1 atm pressure), respectively. Note that cellular conditions vary considerably from these standard conditions, and so standard calculated ∆G values for biological reactions will be different inside the cell.

This text is adapted from Openstax, Biology 2e, Section 6.2: Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy and Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 16.4: Free Energy.

Procedure

Gibbs free energy is the energy available for a system to perform work at a constant temperature and pressure. The change in free energy, or ∆G, can be used to predict a reaction's spontaneity.

Spontaneous processes increase the entropy of the universe; however, it is difficult to measure this entropy change because it includes changes in the disorder of the system being studied and its surroundings.

Using the equation for Gibbs's free energy, spontaneity can be determined by the enthalpy and entropy change of the system alone.

If the system releases heat, the surroundings absorb the heat, which influences the randomness of the surroundings. Mathematically, the entropy of the surroundings equals the negative enthalpy change of the system divided by the temperature.

Rearranging the Gibbs equation shows the negative ratio of free energy change and temperature is equal to the entropy change of the universe.